Present Perfect Continuous Tense

Formula untuk Present Perfect Continuous Tense adalah:

Subject + (has/have) + been + (verb1+ing) + object + modifier

Contoh:

1. Farmers in Jati Bali have been growing rice crops since 1970. (Petani-petani di Jati Bali telah menanam padi sejak tahun 1970).
2. Some students have been conducting research on vegetative plant propagations for two months. (Beberapa siswa telah melakukan penelitian pada perbanyakan tanaman vegetatif selama 2 bulan).
3. Transpiration has been starting to increase since three hours ago. (Transpirasi telah mulai meningkat sejak tiga jam yang lalu).

Present Perfect Tense

Formula untuk Present Perfect Tense adalah:
Subject + (has/have) + verb3 + object + modifier
Contoh:
  1. Farmers in Jati Bali have grown rice crops since 1970. (Petani-petani di Jati Bali telah menanam padi sejak tahun 1970).
  2. Some students have conducted research on vegetative plant propagations for two months. (Beberapa siswa telah melakukan penelitian pada perbanyakan tanaman vegetatif selama 2 bulan).
  3. Transpiration has started to increase since three hours ago. (Transpirasi telah mulai meningkat sejak tiga jam yang lalu).

Past Continuous Tense

Formula untuk Past Continuous atau Past Progressive Tense adalah:
Subject + (Was/Were) + (Verb1+ing) + Object + Modifier
Contoh:
  1. Farmers in Jati Bali were growing rice crops at 9 a.m yesterday. (Petani-petani di Jati Bali sedang menanam padi jam 9 pagi kemarin).
  2. Some students were conducting research on vegetative plant propagations when I went to the agronomy laboratory two days ago. (Beberapa siswa sedang melakukan penelitian pada perbanyakan tanaman vegetatif ketika saya pergi ke lab. agronmy dua hari lalu).
  3. Transpiration was starting to increase at 8 a.m. this morning. (Transpirasi sedang mulai meningkat jam 8 pagi tadi).

Simple Past Tense

Formula untuk Simple Past Tense adalah:
Subject + Verb2 + Object + Modifier
Contoh:
  1. Farmers in Jati Bali grew rice crops 6 months ago. (Petani-petani di Jati Bali bercocok tanam padi 6 bulan yang lalu).
  2. Some students conducted research on vegetative plant propagations last year. (Beberapa siswa melakukan penelitian pada perbanyakan tanaman vegetatif tahun lalu).
  3. Transpiration started to increase 3 hours ago. (Transpirasi mulai meningkat 3 jam yang lalu).
Note: jika subject diikuti oleh adjective atau noun, gunakan be was jika subject-nya I, he, she, it atau noun yang dapat digantikan oleh he, she atau it, dan gunakan were jika subject-nya you, they, we atau noun yang dapat digantikan dengan you, they atau we.

Present Continuous Tense

Formula untuk Present Continuous Tense atau Present Progressive Tense adalah:
Subject +  (is/am/are)  + (Verb1+ing) + Object + Modifier
  1. Farmers in Jati Bali are growing rice crops now. (Petani-petani di Jati Bali sedang bercock tanam padi sekarang).
  2. Some students are conducting research on vegetative plant propagations. (Beberapa siswa sedang melakukan penelitian pada perbanyakan tanaman vegetatif).
  3. Transpiration is starting to increase now. (Transpirasi sedang mulai meningkat sekarang).

Penggunaan Present Continuous Tense

Penggunaan present continuous tense ada 2, yaitu:
1. Present Continuous Tense digunakan untuk menyatakan bahwa subject kalimat sedang melakukan suatu kegiatan. Pada saat dibicarakan (now), kejadian atau aktivitas tersebut sedang berlangsung.

Simple Present Tense

Formula untuk Simple Present Tense adalah:
Subject + Verb1 + Object + Modifier
Note: jika subject diikuti oleh adjective atau noun, gunakan be: is/am/are. Is digunakan jika subject-nya singular yaitu he, she, it dan noun yang dapat digantikan dengan subject pronoun he, she atau it; Am jika subject-nya I; Sedangkan, are jika subject-nya you, they, atau we.  Subject pronoun I, you, they, we, dan noun yang dapat digantikan dengan I, you, they atau we disebut plural subject.
Contoh:
  1. Farmers in Jati Bali grow rice crops twice a year. (Petani-petani di Jati Bali bercocok tanam padi dua kali setahun).
  2. Some students usually conduct research on vegetative plant propagations. (Beberapa siswa biasanya melakukan penelitian pada perbanyakan tanaman vegetatif).
  3. Transpiration starts to increase at 8 a.m. (Transpirasi mulai meningkat jam 8 pagi).

Conditional Sentences (Part 2): Unreal atau Contrary to Fact Conditionals

Berbeda dengan real conditionals,  makna dari kalimat conditional tipe ini selalu bertolak belakang dengan kenyataan (fakta). Artinya, jika faktanya dalam kalimat positif (affirmative), conditionalnya pasti dalam kalimat negatif; Sebaliknya, jika faktanya dalam kalimat negatif, conditionalnya harus dalam kalimat positif.
Ada dua tipe kalimat unreal conditionals, yaitu: jika faktanya dalam simple present tense dan jika faktanya dalam simple past tense. Unreal conditionals dapat dibuat dengan menggunakan conjunctions “if” (seperti halnya dalam real conditionals), dengan menginversi (menempatkan kata bantu) ke depan subject kalimat, dengan menggunakan “as if” atau “as though“, dan verb “wish“. Penggunaan verb “wish” ini akan dibandingkan dengan penggunaan verb “hope“.

Conditional Sentences (Part 1): Real Conditionals

        Dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, sering kita berandai-andai. Misalnya, seandainya (jika) kamu mau jadi pacar saya, saya akan buat kamu orang paling bahagia di dunia. Seandainya saya kaya, saya akan bangun hotel bintang 5 di pantai Kuta. Seandainya saya punya sayap, saya akan terbang petikkan bintang untukmu. Dan seterusnya.  Kalimat-kalimat seperti ini disebut kalimat pengandaian atau dalam bahasa Inggris disebut conditional sentences.
Dalam bahasa Inggris, conditional sentences pada umumnya memiliki ciri-ciri sebagai berikut:
a.  digunakannya kata if dalam anak kalimat (subordinate clause). Karena clause ini diawali oleh if maka disebut if clause.
b.  digunakannya modal auxiliary, seperti will, can, may, must, would, could, might, etc. pada pokok kalimat (main clause).
Conditional sentences dikelompokkan menjadi 2 tipe, yaitu: real conditional dan unreal/contrary to fact. Tulisan ini khusus membahas real conditionals, sedangkan untuk unreal conditional dapat dibaca di topik Conditional sentences (Part 2).

Real conditionals (factual / habitual / hypothetical / future possible)

Kalimat pengandaian tipe ini digunakan untuk mengekpresikan situasi atau aktivitas yang biasanya terjadi atau akan terjadi jika situasi pada if clause terpenuhi. Dengan kata lain, apa yang diandaikan itu memiliki peluang untuk terjadi atau menjadi kenyataan.
Sebagai contoh, ketika seorang teman mengajak saya, apakah malam ini saya mau nonton atau tidak, saya mungkin katakan:
  • If I have the time, I will go.  (Jika saya punya waktu, saya akan pergi).
Kalimat ini secara implisit juga berarti,
  • If I don’t have the time, I will not go. (Jika saya tidak punya waktu, saya tidak akan pergi).

Penggunaan real conditionals

Kalimat pengandaian tipe ini dapat digunakan untuk menyatakan:

a. Future time

If + S + present tense,  S +
will + Verb1
can
may
must
Note: if clause bisa diletakkan di depan kalimat (seperti formula di atas), bisa juga diletakkan di belakang setelah main clause. Ini tidak merubah arti kalimat. Dengan catatan, jika if clause diletakkan di belakang, tanda koma tidak diperlukan.
Contoh:
  1. If I have the money, I will give it to you.  (Jika saya punya uangnya, saya akan memberikannya kepada kamu).
  2. If you keep driving on this speed, we may arrive at home before 10 p.m. (Jika kamu terus nyetir mobil pada kecepatan ini, kita mungkin tiba di rumah sebelum jam 10 malam).
  3. I can pass this subject if I study hard. (Saya dapat lulus mata kuliah ini, jika saya belajar giat).
  4. You must bring an umbrella if I you don’t want to get wet. (Kamu harus membawa payung, jika kamu tidak ingin basah (kehujanan).

b. Habitual (kebiasaan/habit)

If + S + verb1,  S + verb1
Note: Dalam formula ini, modal auxiliary tidak digunakan.
Contoh:
  1. If Budi has enough time, he usually walks to campus. (Jika Budi punya cukup waktu, dia biasanya jalan kaki ke kampus).
  2. I usually watch football on TV every Saturday night if I do not fall asleep. (Saya biasanya nonton sepakbola di TV tiap Sabtu malam jika saya tidak tertidur).
  3. If he has money, he always treats us. (Jika dia punya uang, dia selalu mentraktir kita).

c.  Command (perintah)

If + S + verb1,  S + verb1
Contoh:
  1. If you finish with your work, please help me. (Jika kamu selesai dengan pekerjaanmu, tolong bantu saya).
  2. Please give me a cigarette if you don’t mind. (Tolong beri saya sepuntung rokok, jika kamu tidak keberatan).
  3. If you have time, please meet me in my office.  (Jika kamu punya waktu, tolong temui saya di kantor saya).

Sentence

A. Pengertian Sentence (Kalimat)
Menurut Ilmu Bahasa, sentence (kalimat) adalah sekumpulan kata yang mempunyai paling sedikit satu subjek dan satu predikat serta mengandung pengertian yang sempurna (lengkap). Sebuah kalimat diawali dengan huruf besar dan diakhiri dengan titik.
Atau didalam wikipedia ada dijelaskan akan tetapi saya tidak mendapati yang berbahasa Indonesia dan hanya mendapati yang berbahasa Inggris. Adapun yang tertulis didalam wikipedia adalah sebagai berikut : In linguistics, a sentence is a grammatical unit of one or more words, bearing minimal syntactic relation to the words that precede or follow it, often preceded and followed in speech by pauses, having one of a small number of characteristic intonation patterns, and typically expressing an independent statement, question, request, command, etc. Sentences are generally characterized in most languages by the presence of a finite verb.

B. Pembagian Kalimat
• Simple Sentence (Kalimat Sederhana) yaitu kalimat yang hanya mengandung satu verb (kata keja) utama yang mencerminkan adanya satu gagasan saja.
• Compound Sentence (Kalimat Majemuk) yaitu kalimat yang mengandung dua verb utama atau lebih yang menggambarkan 2 gagasan atau lebih yang disambungkan dengan kata sambung (conjunctions).
• Complex Sentence (Kalimat Sempurna) yaitu kalimat yang mengandung 1 main clause (kalimat induk) dan 1 atau lebih anak kalimat yang dihubungkan dengan Kata Ganti Penghubung (Relative Pronouns).
• Complex-Compound Sentence (Kalimat Majemuk Sempurna) yaitu kalimat gabungan antara kalimat majemuk dan kalimat sempurna yaitu kalimat yang terdiri dari 1 atau lebih kalimat utama dan 1 atau lebih anak kalimat .
Perhatikan contoh-contoh kalimat berikut ini:
• Jean is in the house (simple sentence)
• It’s starting to rain and I have left my deck-chair outside (Compound Sentence)
• The suspect denied that he had been in the neighborhood (Complex Sentence)
• The man stole the jewelry and he did it in his home until he could safely get out of town. (Complex-Compound Sentence)
1. Simple Sentence
A simple sentence is a sentence structure that contains one independent clause and no dependent clauses.
Examples
• The singer bowed.
This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one subject, singer, and one predicate, bowed.
• The baby cried.
This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one subject, baby, and one predicate, cried.
2. Compound sentence (linguistics)
In the English language, a compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses. It does not require a dependent clause. The clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction (with or without a comma), a correlative conjunction (with or without a comma), or a semicolon that functions as a conjunction. A conjunction can be used to make a compound sentence. The use of a comma to separate two independent clauses in a sentence is accepted as part of the English language.
Example: My honey invited me to a cinema, but I do not want to go.
3. Complex sentence
A complex sentence is a sentence with an independent clause and at least one dependent clause (subordinating clause). The dependent clause is introduced by either a subordinate conjunction such as although, or because or a relative pronoun such as who or which.
Examples
• When I saw what you had done, I was sad.
o Independent clause: I was sad
o Dependent clauses: When I saw and what you had done
• Knowing that you hate me makes me sad.
o A complex sentence with a sub-clause functioning as a subject.
o Independent clause: (subject) makes me sad.
o Dependent clause: That you hate me (acting as the subject)
Also when using a verb don’t use “ing” endings.
• Some voters want special consideration that accounts for their handicaps.
o This complex sentence’s subordinate clause is offset by a relative pronoun rather than by a subordinating conjunction. “That” serves a nominal function and serves as a substitute for the noun “consideration” in the independent clause.
o Independent clause: Some voters want special consideration
o Dependent clause: that accounts for their handicaps (modifies the noun in the independent clause)
4. Complex-compound sentence
In syntax, a sentence with at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses is referred to as a complex-compound sentence. Sometimes also called a compound-complex sentence.
Examples
The cat lived in the backyard, but the dog, who knew he was superior, lived inside the house.
Independent clauses:
• The cat lived in the backyard.
Dependent clause:
• who knew he was superior
Though the movie had been tested on the market, The Last Shadow did not fare well in the United States, but it did develop a huge following in Europe, which usually does not go for this movie genre.

C. Pembagian Kalimat Berdasarkan Fungsi Penggunaannya
• Declarative Sentence (Statement) – yaitu kalimat berita atau pernyataan, yang positif maupun negatif, yang benar atau bohong. Posisi Subjek kalimat sebelum kata kerja kalimat tersebut.
• Interrogative Sentence (Question) – yaitu kalimat pertanyaan. Kalimat ini terbagi lagi menjadi Yes/No Question (Kalimat yang jawabannya yes/no yang diawali dengan Auxiliary), Information Question (Kalimat tanya yang jawabannya memerlukan keterangan dan diawali dengan kata tanya), dan Embedded Questions (Pertanyaan di dalam sebuah pernyataan).
• Exclamatory Sentence (Exclamation) – yaitu kalimat yang menyatakan seruan atau ucapan yang spontan karena heran, kagum, terkejut, sedih, dll.
• Imperative Sentence (Command) – yaitu kalimat perintah yang mencakup kalimat permohonan, doa dan sebagainya.
Perhatikan contoh-contoh kalimatnya berikut ini:
• How many spoons are in that box? (Question – Information Question)
• Are you alone? (Question – Yes/No Question)
• What good boy! (Exclamation)

Adjective Word Order (Urutan Penempatan Kata Sifat)

Apabila kita menggunakan lebih dari satu adjective (kata sifat) maka adjective-adjective tersebut harus digunakan dengan urutan yang benar. Urutan adjective tidak seluruhnya tetap tetapi urutannya yang umum adalah sebagai berikut:
Determiner – Opini – Ukuran – Usia – Bentuk – Warna – Asal-usul – Material -> Kata benda
Determiner adalah kata seperti a, an, the, this, that. Kata-kata ini juga merupakan jenis adjective.
Contoh:
  • a famous, old painting
  • a big, round table
  • an American, cotton shirt
Adjective yang merupakan opini ditempatkan sebelum adjective yang merupakan fakta. Contoh:
  • “A long, dark tunnel” atau “A long dark tunnel” keduanya dapat dipakai.
Dengan dua atau lebih adjective warna, digunakan and. Contoh:
  • She’s got a black and white kitten.
Dua adjective selain warna tidak menggunakan and. Contoh:
  • She’s got a little, black kitten.
Kalimat “She’s got a little and black kitten” tidak benar

Angela - An Inverted Love Story By William Schwenk Gilbert

I am a poor paralysed fellow who, for many years past, has been confined to a bed or a sofa. For the last six years I have occupied a small room, giving on to one of the side canals of Venice, and having no one about me but a deaf old woman, who makes my bed and attends to my food; and there I eke out a poor income of about thirty pounds a year by making water-colour drawings of flowers and fruit (they are the cheapest models in Venice), and these I send to a friend in London, who sells them to a dealer for small sums. But, on the whole, I am happy and content.

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English language

English is a West Germanic language that developed in England and south-eastern Scotland during the Anglo-Saxon era. As a result of the military, economic, scientific, political, and cultural influence of the British Empire during the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries, and of the United States since the mid 20th century, it has become the lingua franca in many parts of the world, and the most prominent language in international business and science. It is used extensively as a second language and as an official language in Commonwealth countries and many international organizations.

Historically, English originated from several dialects, now collectively termed Old English, which were brought to the eastern coast of the island of Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers beginning in the 5th century[citation needed]. English was further influenced by the Old Norse language of Viking invaders.

At the time of the Norman conquest, Old English developed into Middle English, borrowing heavily from the Norman (Anglo-French) vocabulary and spelling conventions. The etymology of the word "English" is a derivation from the 12th century Old English englisc or Engle, plural form Angles ("of, relating to, or characteristic of England").

Modern English developed with the Great Vowel Shift that began in 15th-century England, and continues to adopt foreign words from a variety of languages, as well as coining new words. A significant number of English words, especially technical words, have been constructed based on roots from Latin and Greek.